The Byzantine Concept of Martyrdom, Heraklios-Theophanes.

1. The Byzantine concept of Martyrdom 

Those historians who argue for a type of Byzantine Holy War rely primarily on military harangues and chronicles while neglecting ecclesiastical sources. Aside from the very obviously charged speech of such documents the approach itself is detrimental to the argument because the most famous example of Nikephoros Phokas and the canon of St Basil reveals the separation between the imperial prerogatives and those of the church. Attributing more importance to military sources, gives the false impression that the Byzantines held the same belief in spiritually meritorious warfare as the crusaders. This assertion is effected by a limited interpretation of the use of the word “martyr” in battlefield exhortations to incorrectly mean one who achieves sanctification through dying or killing in battle. Theophanes puts the following speech into Heraklios’ mouth before battle, “Brothers, do not be troubled by your enemies numbers for, God willing, one will chase thousands. Let us sacrifice ourselves to God for the salvation of our brothers. Let us take the Martyrs’ crown so the future will applaud us and God will give us our reward.”[1] According to Leo’s Tactica, the most important ability of a general is to exhort his troops so that they “despise death” unsurprisingly religious catechism is not mentioned in the same text.[2] The speech and more importantly the use of the word martyr itself reflect the literary style of heroic epics, the theme of noble sacrifice inherited from Hellenic literature should not be considered as purely Christian or even religious simply because the empire was. The Byzantines were very familiar with many types of martyrdom or “witness” through the lives of the saints, the example of the monastic renunciation, Christian marriage where the bride and groom are fitted with martyrs crowns and military saints. Martyrdom in its true sense is to the glory of God and never, even in the case of military saints in service to a prince. The fact that the most revered soldier martyrs were themselves martyred by the Roman military during periods of Christian persecution and not in battle reveals the precedence Byzantines gave to spiritual warfare.[3] How those who heard Heraklios’s speech encouraging them to “take up the martyrs crowns” interpreted it cannot be known in certainty.[4] From what we do know of the Byzantine understanding of martyrdom we can deduce that it meant a kind of heroic and praiseworthy deed in service to the empire as Saint Athanasios had written.[5] Given the religious significance of Heraklios’ recovery of the cross and documented use of the word “infidel” to describe the enemy it is tempting to assign Heraklios’ wars a religious character. Theophanes also recounts how Heraklios released 50,000 prisoners in thanksgiving to God for granting him victory. Setting free infidels whose destruction is pleasing to God is hardly a fitting sacrifice for one adhering to holy war ideology. It is necessary at this point to acknowledge that Byzantine spirituality emphasized individual responsibility for participation in the Divine Energies as the main salvific path. In contrast to the Byzantine view, the western church held that the ecclesiastic body of the temporal church alone dispensed salvific grace. The authority of the heir of St Peter to meter out salvation or martyric status to those who die in service to the church was easily justified by centuries of Roman Catholic theological development. Byzantine theology did not maintain that grace was only attainable through the visible head of the church and never accounted corporate salvation to the will of a hierarch. They never accepted that participating in the sinful enterprise of war brought them closer to divine likeness (theosis) regardless of what an emperor said before battle. Here we find a difference not only in the role of the Emperor to that of the Pope but also in the basic understandings of martyrdom and the spiritual life. 

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[1] Confessor, Theophanes. Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813. P.19.

[2] VI, Leo. The Taktika of Leo VI. P.21.

[3] Meitanis, PHD.121

[4] Confessor, Theophanes. Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813. P. 19.

[5] Swift, L. J., The Early Fathers on War and Military Service. P. 95. “One is not supposed to kill, but killing the enemy in battle is both lawful and praiseworthy. For this reason individuals who have distinguished themselves in war are considered worthy of great honors, and monuments are put up to celebrate their deeds. Thus, at one particular time, and under one set of circumstances, an act is not permitted, but when time and conditions necessitate it, it is both allowed and condoned.”