Did
the Crusades Change the Byzantine Perception of Violence?
The impact of the crusades on the
Byzantine perception of violence is a complicated issue. There is an observable
shift in the way Byzantines wrote about violence during the period of the crusades.
Answering whether this indicates a break in tradition, an adoption of foreign
ideology, a widespread endorsement of popular opinions or simply an expression
of panic requires careful attention.[1]
The shift in attitude can be observed in the commentaries of canonical
commentators, statements by churchmen and in the portrayal of military saints.
The most clear and measurable change can be seen in the way the Byzantine
church treated violence. The church had historically supported the empire’s
wars as an unavoidable necessity and can be reasonably described as more or
less passively complicit. The separation between the sacred nature of the
church and the military prerogatives of the Empire had been clearly defined.[2]
The belief that all violence was by its very nature sinful was widespread and
reinforced by both ecclesiastics and emperors.[3]
The Byzantine concept of violence prevented the Church from offering spiritual
rewards to soldiers as the Western church had.[4]
Choniates
By the time of Niketas Choniates
(1155-1216) the perception of violence in Byzantium appears to have changed
significantly. Niketas though hostile to the Crusaders extolled their military
prowess and berated the consistent cowardice of the Byzantine army. The
worsening political and military situation of the empire during the 12th
century transformed the traditional view of warfare as a means of bringing
justice to a prerequisite for survival. The language used by Choniates
indicates the need for urgent offensive struggle. Khazan made the observation
that the number of times the word attack is mentioned in Choniates’ Historia compared to defense is
overwhelming, reflecting Choniates’ preoccupation with military matters.[5]
In his role as governor of Phillipopolis, Nicetas Choniates became acutely
aware of the necessity of the military support that had been missing since the
rule of Emperor Manuel. Choniates also demonstrates an understanding of the
Crusading indulgence in his account of a speech given by Louis VII during the
second crusade “Even though we be concerned about
our going straight to the eternal mansions for God is not so unjust that he
does not see the cause which had led us on this course and therefore not admit
us into the virgin meadows and shady resting places in Eden, for we have
abandoned our country and have chosen to die for him rather than to live.”[6]
The speech is similar to that of Emperor Heraclius (575-641) in which battle is
considered a martyric sacrifice, the religious language of the Louis speech is
close to the Byzantine but states that the crusaders set out seeking a salvific
death rather than to bring justice to an occupied territory.[7]
Choniates goes on to give a favorable account of Frederick Barbarossa’s
(1122-1190) crusade in which he criticized Emperor Isaac (r
1185-1195/1203-1204) assigning him the changeable characteristics often
attributed to westerners by Byzantine authors.[8] A large portion of Choniates’ praise of
Barbarossa regards the crusading army’s military prowess that Choniates
perceived as producing greater results than the Byzantine diplomacy had with
the Turks.[9]
He voiced his frustration with the apathy shown by the emperors toward Roman
territories held by Muslims and the “ignominious”[10]
military enterprises of the Romans. “Phrygia, Lykaonia, and Pisidia once subject to the Romans and
now ruled by the barbarians who have taken them by the force of arms and
exploit them, thanks to the slothfulness and unmanly housekeeping cares of
Roman rulers who have been unwilling to labor and brave danger for the lands
entrusted to their safekeeping.”[11]
The absence of criticism for the crusade indulgence in Choniates is striking
since he is quick to point out the other religious errors that belonged to the
Latins.[12]
That Choniates believed that the Crusades could be just can be read in his
eulogy of Barbarossa in which he undoubtedly describes him as a martyr. “He
chose...to suffer afflictions with the Christians of Palestine for the name of
Christ…following the example of the Apostle Paul, he did not count his life
dear unto himself but pressed forward, even to die for the name of Christ. Thus
the man’s zeal was apostolic, his purpose dear to God and his achievement
beyond perfection.”[13] Choniates
interpreted the crusade as a parallel to the Byzantine just war, his own words
regarding Barbarossa are very close to those found in the letter of Patriarch
Michael Autoreianos (1206-1212). The theme of martyrdom for the protection of
the Holy Sepulcher is echoed in Autoreianos’ letter with Constantinople the
“new Jerusalem” replacing the old. Autoreianos and Choniates both agreed that
the defense of Orthodox Christians offered a spiritual reward. Only after 1204
does he openly accuse the crusaders of the ill intent that Anna Komnene and
Dositheos had assigned them “they were exposed as frauds…Seeking to avenge the
Holy Sepulcher, they raged openly against Christ and sinned by overturning the
Cross with the cross they bore on their backs, not even shuddering to trample
on it for a little gold and silver.”[14]
Despite his negative final assessment of the Crusaders Choniates did not make a
case against the crusade indulgence but instead empathized with them and
demonstrated a common understanding of violence with them. It is convincing
that Choniates was favorable to the ideology of the Crusade but as Anna Komnene
(1008-1153) did before him he observed that there were two distinct groups
within the crusading movement; those who were sincere in their martyric
struggle and those who sought material gain.[15]
[1] The differing degrees of interpretation are
explored thoroughly in, Kolbaba, Tia. "Fighting For
Christianity." Byzantion 68 (Brussels, 1998), pp. 194-221.
[2] Dennis, George T., ed. Three Byzantine
Military Treatises.Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 1985.p.13. “Holy orders have been established for the
worship of God..through whom all things came into being and are governed in the
ways of goodness known to him alone. Legal institutions are established to
bring about justice.. laws and judges have been established to pronounce
judgement .. to aid people in living together in peace.”
p .37. “Out of reverence for
the image and the word of God, all men ought to have embraced peace and
fostered love for one another instead of taking up murderous weapons in their
hands to be used against their own people. But since the devil, the original
killer of men, the enemy of our race, has made use of sin to bring men around
to waging war, contrary to their basic nature, it is absolutely necessary for
men to wage war in return against those whom the devil maneuvers and to take their
stand with unflinching resolve against nations who want war.”
[4] Pope John VIII (872-82) was the first pope to offer the remission of sins to those who died fighting Muslim raiders. This indulgence, unlike the crusading indulgence was offered to those defending Christian territory in Italy.
Thatcher, Oliver J., and Edgar H. McNeal, eds. A Source Book for Mediaeval History. New York: Charles Schreibner's Sons, 1905.p. 512 “Those who, out of love to the Christian religion, shall die in battle fighting bravely against pagans or unbelievers, shall receive eternal life..we absolve, as far as is permissible, all such and commend them by our prayers to the Lord.”
[5] Kazhdan, Alexander. "Terminology of War in Niketas Choniates' Historia." In Peace and War in Byzantium; Essays in Honor of George T. Dennis, S.J., edited by Timothy S. Millier and John Nesbitt, 220-44. Washington: Catholic University of America, 1995.
[6] Choniates, Niketas, O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates, trans. Harry Magoulias. P. 40
[7] Confessor, Theophanes. Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813. Translated by Cyril Mango and Rodger Scott. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.p.19 “Brothers, do not be troubled by your enemies numbers for, God willing, one will chase thousands. Let us sacrifice ourselves to God for the salvation of our brothers. Let us take the Martyrs’ crown so the future will applaud us and God will give us our reward.”
[8] Especially his “simple minded bewitchment” by Dositheos, Choniates, Niketas pp 221,222.
[9] See the account of Barbarossa’s attack on Philomilion, Ginklarion and Ikonion. Choniates, Niketas, p 227,228
[10] Choniates, Niketas, p. 225.
[11] ibid., p.43.
[12] ibid., p.222. Regarding the Latins “Germans” and the Armenians “they agree with one another in most of their heresies… both use azyma in their divine liturgies, and both hold as lawful other perverse doctrines which are rejected by the orthodox Christians.”
[13]ibid., p.229.
[14] Choniates, Niketas, O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates, p. 316
[15] Comnena, Anna, p.. “The simpler-minded were urged on by the real desire of worshipping at our Lord‘s Sepulchre, and visiting the sacred places; but the more astute,. had another secret reason, namely.. they might by some means be able to seize the capital itself, looking upon this as a kind of corollary”
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